What does it take to be elite?

What sets apart those who achieve such high levels of physical ability that they enter the elite segment? What physical traits are unique to our elite athletes? Is it that elite athletes have thicker skulls, greater determination, favorable genetics, or is there something else that sets them apart?

In this article, we explore the factors that research identifies as crucial for performance in endurance sports: oxygen uptake, running economy, anaerobic threshold, body composition, genetics, and training regimen. We examine what can be measured, what can be influenced—and what cannot. The conclusion is clear: there is no single super parameter; instead, it's the combination of various physiological characteristics and a well-planned training effort that determines success. Elite performers are not created by one factor, but by the sum of many.

In endurance sports, defining an elite athlete based on various physical markers can be a bit tricky since studies use different terms for the anaerobic threshold (AT), lactate threshold, and often employ sport-specific protocols for testing VO2max. The review I base this article on summarizes research in the field and distinguishes an elite athlete from a sub-elite based on the following points:

• Drafted or drafted in high rounds versus those undrafted or drafted in later rounds;
• Perceived as having greater performance ability than their peers in the same sport;
• Play at a higher level within a sport (division I vs II, professional vs amateur); and for endurance, greater variables (e.g., running economy, AT, VO2max).

Oxygen uptake and oxygen consumption are two strong factors that are highly specific to each sport. An elite cyclist and a triathlete will have different oxygen uptake levels during a cycling test, and a cyclist will not have the same uptake during a treadmill test compared to a triathlete or runner. You usually find your true VO2max in a test that closely matches your specific sport.

To put some numbers into context, consider a triathlete: elite athletes typically have a range of 39–49 ml/kg/min in swimming, 57–61 ml/kg/min in cycling tests, and 61–85 ml/kg/min when tested on a treadmill. If you fall within this range for each discipline, your oxygen uptake falls within the normal elite range.

However, oxygen uptake is just one part of the equation and often not even the most crucial aspect. As the duration extends, other factors seem to have a greater impact, including thermoregulation, energy intake, and fluid intake. It's perhaps no big surprise — it doesn't matter how large your tank is if it's empty…

“Evidence indicates that factors such as thermal regulation, fluid homeostasis, and energy balance have an increasingly larger impact on performance than VO2max, as the length of the triathlon increases.”

Elite marathon runners typically have an oxygen uptake range of 70–85 ml/kg/min, which is regarded as a key factor in performance for middle- and long-distance running. VO2max accounts for approximately 59 percent of the variations in marathon times among elite runners. For shorter distances, such as 5000 meters, the final treadmill speed during the VO2max test appears to be a more accurate performance predictor.

Next comes the less exciting part—genetics. It's something we can't control but can't leave out of the discussion. There's no perfect gene for endurance; instead, it's a collection of genes coding for various attributes crucial in endurance sports, and it's likely that we haven't identified all the connections yet. (Sure, we've identified all the genes, but their specific functions and how they impact performance are far from completely understood.)

In high-altitude training, a study involving 268 Bolivians found that a specific gene accounts for 20–25% of athletic performance at high altitudes, thereby influencing your genetic response to this type of training. Another study compared 172 identical and fraternal twins, revealing that genetics explain about 40% of the variation in oxygen uptake.

Here we have number two: keeping the oxygen cost low at a given workload is just as important as being able to use a lot of oxygen.

Start with the muscle fibers: a high proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers (Type I fibers) is strongly associated with better running economy. Measuring VO2max together with running economy can explain up to 92 percent of the variations in performance at the elite level. It's probably one of the most effective ways to predict performance today, at least in cross-country skiing—and likely in running as well.

However, running economy alone cannot predict your placement in a race. Studies on marathon runners show that the oxygen cost did not correlate with placement among males with a personal best under 2:11, while it did correlate among women with a personal best under 2:38.

Among the standout males, the top ten runners consumed on average 210 ml/kg/km while the ten runners just behind consumed 195 ml/kg/km, a difference of 7 percent. The top ten runners had on average 11 percent higher oxygen consumption than the ten just behind (71.4 ml/kg/min vs. 63.7 ml/kg/min at a 10 km marathon pace). So: the top ten had a poorer running economy but still won thanks to a higher VO2max.

Our anaerobic threshold (AT) might be a more effective tool than VO2 max for distinguishing elite athletes from non-elite ones. AT is the intensity level where we start using anaerobic energy production in the form of lactate at a rate that the body can't fully metabolize. If you exceed your AT, lactate and hydrogen ions build up faster than you can eliminate them, forcing your performance to drop back below the AT level. After surpassing the AT, you also incur an oxygen debt, which temporarily reduces your subsequent capacity.

Like VO2 max, genetic factors influence your AT. Some people have a genetic edge in managing lactate and anaerobic metabolism. Studies on AT in cycling among triathletes show their threshold ranges between 61–88 percent of VO2 max, highlighting significant individual variation. Those with a threshold around 60 percent of VO2 max typically aren't in the elite segment, while those above 80–85 percent of VO2 max (equivalent to up to about 93 percent of max heart rate) are at the pinnacle of the elite.

Training your AT is crucial — it's the best predictor of athletic performance in long-distance cycling, running, and Olympic distance triathlon. It provides a better measure than both running economy and VO2 max when each is measured individually and compared.

Body weight and body fat percentage are two crucial factors for reaching elite levels in endurance. A lighter body requires less oxygen to transport, especially if it has a low fat percentage that doesn't contribute to forward movement and is merely "dead weight".

The body fat percentage among elite athletes averages 8 percent when considering both males and women collectively. Among sub-elite athletes, the figure is 10.7 percent, and for the next group down, which is skilled but not sub-elite skilled, the figure is 12.1 percent. The statistics hold true even up to ultra-distances, where the same correlation between low body fat percentage and placement is no longer as clear.

Otherwise, there are no strong connections between other body measurements and placement among elite endurance athletes.

Last but not least: the training plan itself. How does training differ between elite and sub-elite?

The short answer is partly the training speed. Elite athletes maintain higher speeds across all zones due to their higher VO2max, which shifts the entire zone curve to the right—they can sustain a higher pace at the same heart rate. Additionally, elite athletes seem to spend more time on high-intensity, explosive strength training compared to sub-elite in the same sport. Something to keep in mind when motivation for physical training wanes 😉

Alright, let's dig into the numbers you can actually measure and see what those of us aiming for elite status should target to fall within the range where many other elite athletes are found. I must note that these figures are derived from many elite athletes, but certainly not all. Also, I'm presenting average values from studies that inherently have variations both upward and downward. But we should aim for something.

• Oxygen Uptake for Triathletes

  • Swimming – 44 ml/kg/min
  • Cycling – 59 ml/kg/min
  • Running – 73 ml/kg/min

• Oxygen Uptake for Marathon Runners

  • 77.5 ml/kg/min

• Oxygen Consumption / Running Economy Cost

  • ~200 ml oxygen/kg/km

• Anaerobic Threshold (AT)

  • Marathon Runners – 90% of VO2max
  • Triathletes – 75% of VO2max

• Body Fat Percentage

  • Combined value for both genders – 8%. Around 6% for male and 10% for woman

Last but not least, energy substrates and fluids are very important components, and something the elite have a very good handle on. Take a look at the clip below from 25 minutes onward for some energy equations regarding carbohydrates/fat. If you're really into it, feel free to watch it all 🙂